Understanding Delhi under the Sultans
Histories and Historians: During the Delhi Sultanate period, histories were written in Persian, the language of administration, and were known as “Tarikh” (singular) or “Tawarikh” (plural). These historical accounts were composed by scholars who held various roles in the court, including secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers. Their narratives served the dual purpose of recounting historical events and advising rulers on governance. The historians emphasized the significance of just rule, often stressing the importance of maintaining a “circle of justice.”
The Circle of Justice: The “circle of justice” was a concept articulated by Fakhr-i Mudabbir in the thirteenth century. It encapsulates the interdependence between the king and his subjects. According to this concept, the king’s survival depends on having a well-maintained army, which in turn relies on salaries. These salaries are funded by the revenue collected from peasants. However, peasants can only contribute to the revenue when they are prosperous and content. Therefore, the king’s promotion of justice and honest governance is crucial for the well-being of his subjects and the stability of his reign.
Birthright Privileges and Gender Distinctions: During this period, there were entrenched notions of birthright privileges and gender distinctions. Birthright privileges were claimed based on one’s lineage, with nobles inheriting their rights to govern from their family backgrounds. Gender distinctions were social and biological differences between men and women, often used to argue for male superiority. The ruling elite and the historians who advised them promoted an “ideal” social order based on these principles, which were not universally accepted.
Raziyya’s Reign: Raziyya, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became Sultan in 1236. Her reign, however, was met with opposition from the nobles due to her attempts to rule independently. Minhaj-us-Siraj, a chronicler of the time, criticized Raziyya’s rule, arguing that it went against the perceived natural order where women were subordinate to men. Despite her efforts to establish her legitimacy through inscriptions and coins that highlighted her lineage, Raziyya was eventually removed from the throne in 1240. This event underscores the challenges faced by female rulers in a patriarchal society.
Let’s continue with the explanation of the next sections.
A Closer Look: Administration under the Khaljis and Tughluqs
Role of Slaves in Administration: The Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, relied on special slaves called “mamluks” for military service. These slaves were purchased and carefully trained to serve as reliable governors and administrators. Unlike appointing aristocrats or landed chieftains, the Sultans favored mamluks because they were wholly dependent on their masters, ensuring their loyalty.
Client Patronage System: The Sultans continued to utilize and promote individuals of humble birth, often their clients, to high political positions. These clients were appointed as generals and governors. However, this practice introduced an element of political instability, as the loyalty of these individuals was to their masters rather than to the ruling dynasty. The accession of a new monarch often led to challenges as the loyalty of these officials shifted.
Criticism of the Sultan’s Patronage: The patronage of humble individuals by the Delhi Sultans, particularly during Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, was criticized by contemporary chroniclers such as Ziyauddin Barani. Barani viewed the appointment of people like wine distillers, barbers, and cooks to high administrative posts as a sign of the Sultan’s loss of political judgment and incapacity to rule. This critique reflects the tension between traditional elites and the rising influence of individuals from non-aristocratic backgrounds in the administration.
Now, let’s elaborate on the last section.
The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries
Transition from Tughluqs to Sayyids and Lodis: Following the Tughluq dynasty, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled Delhi. This transition marked a period of change and upheaval in the Delhi Sultanate. Although these dynasties ruled for a relatively short period, they witnessed significant developments, including the emergence of new ruling groups like the Afghans and Rajputs.
Challenges and Regional Fragmentation: During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, regions such as Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the entire South India saw the rise of independent rulers. The decline of the central authority in Delhi led to regional fragmentation, with local chieftains establishing their rule. This period also saw the emergence of new ruling elites, notably the Afghans, who challenged the authority of the Delhi Sultanate.
Administration under Regional Dynasties: Despite the decline of the Delhi Sultanate, regional rulers like the Afghans and Rajputs established their small but powerful and well-administered territories. These rulers, such as Sher Shah Suri, implemented administrative systems that borrowed elements from the Delhi Sultanate. Sher Shah’s administrative model, in particular, became the blueprint for the Mughal Empire under Akbar, emphasizing efficient governance and revenue management.
Impact of External Threats: The Delhi Sultanate faced external threats, notably from the Mongols under Genghis Khan. Mongol invasions posed a significant challenge to the Sultanate, particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. To counter these threats, the Sultanate had to maintain a large standing army, which posed immense administrative challenges.
Fortifications and Defense: In response to external threats and internal rivalries, chieftains established fortified structures and devised defense mechanisms. Ibn Battuta, a fourteenth-century traveler, noted that chieftains implemented various strategies to safeguard their territories, including the construction of forts, walls, and moats. These fortifications served as vital defensive structures against invading forces and rival factions.
By breaking down each section into more detailed explanations, we gain a deeper understanding of the historical context, administrative practices, and socio-political dynamics during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. Let me know if you need further clarification on any specific part!