The Idea of a Supreme God:

Before the emergence of large kingdoms, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. As societies began to grow and interact through the expansion of towns, trade, and empires, new ideas started to develop. The concept of the transmigration of souls, where all living things go through numerous cycles of birth and rebirth, became widely accepted. Simultaneously, the belief that not all human beings are equal even at birth gained ground. The idea that social privileges were determined by birth in a “noble” family or a “high” caste was a topic of debate in many learned texts. However, many people were uncomfortable with such notions and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas, which advocated personal effort to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth. Others were drawn to the idea of a Supreme God who could liberate humans from this cycle if approached with devotion, known as bhakti. This concept gained popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.

Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars:

The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements in South India, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu). These saints came from various castes, including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They were critical of Buddhist and Jain teachings, advocating ardent love for Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. Drawing upon ideals of love and heroism found in Sangam literature, they blended them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and Alvars traveled from place to place composing exquisite poems praising the deities enshrined in the villages they visited, and set them to music.

Philosophy and Bhakti:

Adi Shankaracharya, one of the most prominent philosophers of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century. He advocated Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God, which is the Ultimate Reality. Shankaracharya taught that Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, was formless and without attributes. He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman and attain salvation. Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him, the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. Ramanuja believed that even when united with the Supreme God, the individual soul remained distinct. His doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in North India subsequently.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism:

In the mid-twelfth century, the Virashaiva movement began in Karnataka, initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. This movement strongly advocated for the equality of all human beings and opposed Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women. Virashaivas rejected all forms of ritual and idol worship. The movement emphasized personal devotion and the direct experience of the divine, rather than adherence to traditional religious practices.

Bhakti Movement in the Deccan:

From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, Maharashtra witnessed the rise of numerous saint-poets, whose songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people today. The most notable among them were Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram, as well as women like Sakhubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste. These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism and outward displays of piety, as well as social differences based on birth. They preferred to live with their families, earning their livelihood like any other person, while humbly serving fellow human beings in need. They emphasized the importance of sharing others’ pain as a way of expressing devotion.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis:

A number of religious groups emerged during this period, criticizing ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas, and Yogis. These groups advocated for renunciation of the world and believed that the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realization of oneness with it. They promoted intense training of the mind and body through practices like yoga, breathing exercises, and meditation. These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes and played a significant role in shaping the landscape of devotional religion in northern India.

Islam and Sufism:

Islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God. In the eighth and ninth centuries, religious scholars developed different aspects of the Holy Law (Shariat) and theology of Islam. However, many people sought a more personal and experiential connection with the divine, leading to the development of Sufism. Sufis rejected outward religiosity and emphasized love, devotion to God, and compassion towards all fellow human beings. They believed in direct personal experience of the divine and developed elaborate methods of training, including chanting, contemplation, singing, dancing, and breath control, under the guidance of a master or pir. Sufi saints like Ghazzali, Rumi, and Sadi wrote poetry expressing their spiritual experiences, and their teachings had a profound impact on the religious landscape of India.

New Religious Developments in North India:

The period after the thirteenth century witnessed a new wave of the bhakti movement in North India. This was an era marked by the coexistence of Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, and various other religious traditions. New kingdoms were emerging, and people from diverse backgrounds were drawn to the teachings of new saints. Some, like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak, rejected all orthodox religions, while others, like Tulsidas and Surdas, accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make them accessible to all. These saints composed their works in regional languages, making them immensely popular among the masses. They challenged social norms and advocated for a more inclusive and egalitarian society. The bhakti movement in North India played a crucial role in shaping religious and social practices during this period.