The Emergence of New Dynasties

1. Rise of Landlords and Warrior Chiefs:

   • By the seventh century, large landlords and warrior chiefs began to emerge across the Indian subcontinent. These individuals held significant local power and often acted as the intermediaries between the central king and the local populace.
   • These chiefs and landlords were initially subordinates, often acknowledged by the reigning kings. They were expected to bring tributes to the king, attend the royal court, and provide military support when needed.

2. Declaring Independence:

   • As these local leaders accumulated more power and wealth, they started asserting greater autonomy. Some even declared themselves independent rulers.
   • A notable example is the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan region. Initially subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka, the Rashtrakutas, under the leadership of Dantidurga in the mid-eighth century, overthrew their Chalukya overlord. Dantidurga performed the “hiranya-garbha” (literally, the golden womb) ritual, a significant ceremony believed to transform a man into a Kshatriya, affirming his legitimacy as a ruler.

3. Military Skill and New Kingdoms:

   • Enterprising individuals from various backgrounds used their military skills to establish new kingdoms. This period saw a diversification of ruling classes as individuals who were not traditionally Kshatriyas rose to power.
   • For instance, Kadamba Mayurasharman, originally a Brahmana, took to arms and founded a kingdom in Karnataka. Similarly, Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, also a Brahmana by birth, established a kingdom in Rajasthan.

Administration in the Kingdoms

1. Adoption of Grand Titles:

   • The new rulers adopted grandiose titles to assert their supremacy and divine right to rule. Titles such as Maharaja (great king) and Tribhuvana Chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) were commonly used.
   • These titles were meant to project the image of a powerful and legitimate ruler, both to their subjects and rival kingdoms.

2. Sharing Power:

   • Despite these grand titles, the rulers often shared power with local elites and associations. This included subordinate chiefs (samantas), as well as associations of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.
   • The decentralization of power helped in managing vast territories and maintaining local support.

3. Revenue Collection:

   • The primary source of revenue for these kingdoms was taxes collected from the producers, including peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans.
   • In the Chola kingdom, for instance, inscriptions mention over 400 different kinds of taxes, with vetti (a form of forced labor) and kadamai (land revenue) being the most prominent.

4. Role of Functionaries:

   • Revenue collection and other administrative functions were typically carried out by influential families, with positions often being hereditary.
   • This hereditary system ensured continuity and stability in administration but also entrenched the power of certain families and clans.

Prashastis and Land Grants

1. Prashastis as Glorification:

   • Prashastis were inscriptions that glorified the achievements of kings, often composed by learned Brahmanas. These inscriptions served to legitimize and immortalize the ruler’s deeds.
   • For example, the prashasti of the Pratihara king Nagabhata found in Gwalior describes his victories over various regions and rivals, presenting him as a formidable and divine ruler.

2. Land Grants:

   • Kings often rewarded Brahmanas and other officials with land grants as a form of patronage and to gain their support. These grants were meticulously recorded on copper plates.
   • An example is a ninth-century copper plate that records a land grant by a Chola ruler. It details the boundaries of the land and the resources it included, such as trees, wells, and agricultural land.

3. Details in Inscriptions:

   • Land grant inscriptions also specified the rights and responsibilities of the grantee, such as the right to collect taxes and undertake public works like building wells and planting trees.
   • This system of land grants helped integrate local elites into the administration and ensured the maintenance and development of infrastructure.

Warfare for Wealth

1. Control Over Strategic Areas:

   • Rulers frequently engaged in warfare to control strategic regions that were rich in resources and trade routes. Control over these areas was crucial for economic prosperity and political power.
   • A prime example is the tripartite struggle for Kanauj in the Ganga valley, involving the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas. This region was highly coveted due to its economic and strategic importance.

2. Temple Raids:

   • Temples, being centers of immense wealth, were often targeted during conflicts. Raiding temples not only provided material wealth but also struck at the heart of the rival’s prestige and religious sanctity.
   • Mahmud of Ghazni, for instance, conducted 17 raids into the Indian subcontinent between 1000 and 1025 CE. His most famous target was the wealthy temple of Somnath in Gujarat.

3. Demonstrating Power:

   • Kings demonstrated their power and resources by constructing large temples and monumental architecture. These structures served as symbols of their divine right to rule and their capability to mobilize vast resources.
   • The Chahamanas, or Chauhans, of Delhi and Ajmer, for instance, engaged in extensive warfare to expand their territory and built grand structures to display their power.

A Closer Look: The Cholas

1. Rise to Power:

   • The Cholas, originally a minor chiefly family, rose to prominence by capturing the fertile Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar around the ninth century.
   • Vijayalaya Chola, the founder of the Chola dynasty, established the town of Thanjavur and built a temple for the goddess Nishumbhasudini.

2. Expansion and Conquest:

   • Vijayalaya’s successors expanded the Chola kingdom by conquering neighboring territories, integrating regions such as the Pandyan and Pallava territories into their domain.
   • Rajaraja I, one of the most powerful Chola rulers, significantly expanded the kingdom and restructured its administration to ensure efficient governance.

3. Temple Construction:

   • The Cholas built magnificent temples that became centers of not just religious, but also economic, social, and cultural life.
   • The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I, and the temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, constructed by his son Rajendra I, are prime examples of Chola architectural and sculptural excellence.

4. Agriculture and Irrigation:

   • The Cholas implemented advanced irrigation techniques, such as the construction of extensive tank and canal systems, to enhance agricultural productivity.
   • The Kaveri delta was transformed into a highly productive agricultural region due to these irrigation efforts, supporting the growth of the Chola economy.

5. Administration:

   • The Chola empire had a sophisticated administrative structure with local village councils (sabhas) and associations of traders and Brahmanas playing key roles.
   • Inscriptions from Uttaramerur detail the organization of village assemblies, including committees responsible for various administrative functions such as irrigation, garden maintenance, and temple upkeep.
   • These village assemblies were democratic to some extent, with members selected through a lottery system to ensure fairness and prevent the concentration of power.

Additional Notes

1. Prashastis and Land Grants:

   • Prashastis were not just records of achievements but also tools of propaganda, crafted to present the ruler in the most favorable light.
   • Land grants served multiple purposes: rewarding loyalty, promoting agriculture, and ensuring the ruler’s favor among influential Brahmanas and officials.

2. Economic Activities and Social Life:

   • Temples were central to economic and social life, serving as hubs of craft production, trade, and social gatherings.
   • The Chola bronze sculptures, famous for their artistic excellence, were often produced in these temple complexes.

3. Agriculture and Economy:

   • The Chola administration promoted agricultural expansion by clearing forests, leveling land, and constructing irrigation works.
   • These efforts not only increased agricultural output but also supported the overall economic stability and growth of the Chola empire.

By elaborating on these points, we can gain a deeper understanding of the emergence of new dynasties, their administrative structures, their use of prashastis and land grants, the role of warfare, and the specific characteristics of the Chola dynasty.